Policeman of the World Essay

Since gaining independence from the British in 1776, the United States foreign policy over the years has gone from expansionist to isolationism to defending democracy. With the responsibility of defending democratic rights for those who cannot defend themselves, the United States in my opinion has taken on the role of â€Å"policeman of the world.† This role became more evident with the use of U.S. military force in international incidents like U.S. intervention in the 2011 Libyan Civil War to oust Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, and U.S. involvement in the 2011 Yemeni Civil War protesting the leadership of Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh. Despite the United States being hailed as a defender of democracy by some, their actions are usually not selfless. In both situations protecting United States interests was a major factor. Both Libya and Yemen are hot beds for terrorist activity by radical groups like al-Qaeda. The United States keeps tabs on the activities of these groups in an effort to intercept information to thwart acts of terrorism, particularly against Americans. Leadership in these vulnerable countries is of great interest to the United States because some regimes are sympathetic to these militant groups. A lack of clear leadership in these countries also poses a threat to U.S. interests because a lapse in leadership can lead to militant groups seizing control. Three aspects of U.S. history since 1865 that led to the US’s rise as a world super power policeman are religious and moral views, geopolitical reasons, and financial reasons. First, American missionaries believed that it was their duty to spread Christianity to the uncivilized areas of the world. Second, European nations were effectively dividing the resource rich areas of the world between them and were profiting greatly from th ese regions. The U.S. felt that it too could profit from these acquisitions both financially and strategically. Third, the advent of the industrial age led to the accumulation of wealth for many business leaders in America. These businessmen saw the potential of further economic expansion by having access  to overseas markets and materials. Three international incidents from the past five years that can be traced back to a foreign policy created after the Civil War are Vietnam, Somalia, and Iraq. The Vietnam War began in 1955 and was fought between communist North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The regime of North Vietnam and its allies known as the Viet Cong were supported by the Russian government while South Vietnam’s primary ally was the United States. In 1991 the President of Somalia Mohamed Siad Barre was overthrown and this led to the beginning of a civil war. During this time various militias vied for control of the country. This marked a period of intense violence and fighting which eventually required both United Nations Peacekeeping forces and U.S. military involvement. The Iraqi war of 2003 started after Iraq claimed to possess weapons of mass destruction. Under the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein, some segments of the Iraqi population prospered while others were threatened with violence, tortured, and killed. Under Saddam Hussein’s regime, Iraq developed chemical weapons that were used against its enemies and even its own people. Three driving forces that fueled international policy decisions involving the international incidents with Vietnam, Somalia, and Iraq were containing communism, providing United Nations aid, and protecting the United States from threats abroad. In Vietnam, the United States was afraid communism would spread around the world, undermining capitalism. Stopping North Vietnam from spreading its communist regime to South Vietnam was seen as necessary particularly during the Cold War battle with the Soviet Union. During the Somali Civil War the suffering of the people was broadcast worldwide and there was public outcry for aid to the country. In Somalia, the United States mission was first and foremost to support the United Nations relief effort to provide aid to millions of starving Somali people. The United States entered Iraq to remove Weapons of Mass Destruction which were believed to have been developed under Iraq’s dictator Saddam Hussein who all but proclaimed he possessed these weapons. These weapons posed a threat to the United States and its allies and after 9/11 the United States had implemented a policy of protecting itself from any current or perceivable future threats. In the two hundred plus years since establishing its independence, the United States has adopted various attitudes towards foreign policy. Immediately after obtaining independence from Great  Britain, this fairly new nation focused on issues on the home front. After the devastation of the Civil War, the country welcomed the Industrial Revolution with open arms. The advances in technology and transportation during the Industrial Revolution led to great improvements in American society and established the United States as a world power. Most Americans believed it was their duty to civilize the world. Although the United States had moral reasons for expansion, their foreign policy was mostly fueled by self-interest. This self-interest dictated foreign policy from 1867 all the way to the present day. References Dilanian, K., & Cloud, D. (2012, May 16). U.S. escalates clandestine war in Yemen. In Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 23, 2014, from http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/world_now/2012/05/washington-escalation-american- clandestine-war-yemen-us-troops-.html Dwyer, D. (2011, August 22). US military intervention in Libya cost at least $896 million. In abc News. Retrieved February 23, 2014, from http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2011/08/us-military-intervention-in-libya-cost-at-least-896-million/ Schultz, K. M. (2014). HIST: Volume 2: U.S. history since 1865 (3rd ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning. Vietnam war. (n.d.). In History. Retrieved February 23, 2014, from http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war

Pakistan Elections Essay

Whilst the tenure of a democratically elected government comes to an end, political parties in Pakistan are gearing up for elections. Almost all significant parties have ruled the country one way or the other during the past five years. Perhaps, Elections 2013 are going to take place at the most critical time in the history of country. On the verge of selling their story to the public, the anti-status quo parties will have to produce a revolutionary and out of the box solutions to people’s problems, or to befool the masses yet once more. The energetic and aggressive media in its present capacity remains a major factor to influence minds. Still there is a big question mark on whether media can play their role positively and constructively. At the moment, media is the only institution which has the power to make or break the future of the country. Now when elections are just around the corner, any possible equation hinting at the postponement of elections is out of questions. Several attempts have been made and number of rumors has been floating but recent developments suggest that any such effort to derail the electoral system will not be supported by establishment. It is believed that three major factors will decide the outcome of the upcoming elections. First and foremost is an international issue, i.e. withdrawal of US and ISAF troops from Afghanistan. Three major parties (PPP, PML (N) and PTI) are on a serious quest of convincing US officials that their leadership will be the right choice to handle Afghan borders when US withdraws their troops. Two other factors will be internal but international community is keeping a close eye on it, namely economy and energy crisis. These elections will be dominated by these issues and any party who can provide solution for these problems can ultimately dominate the election results. This is slightly an idealistic statement; given the electoral process in Pakistan has its own dynamics. Yet these issues will affect the outcome of these elections a great deal. Country’s economy is severely jolted by poor economic decisions and terrorism. IMF has already declined any further assistance on economic revival. Terrorism and mismanagement of resources have coupled to shatter the economy of the country. More alarmingly, next budget is to be prepared by care taker government which is not likely present a popular budget. They will also be hesitant of making any tough decisions with little mandate. Looking for a next installment in terrorism support fund or Kerry-Lugar package will be the ultimate desire as the care taker government will not be in a position to bargain for a bail-out package from the international community. No political party has been able to assure USA that they have the most viable strategy to facilitate US exit from Afghanistan, establish peace in the region, resolution to the border issues with Afghanistan & India and controlling the growing militancy in the country. Other issues that will be of immense importance for next government include controlling the law and order situation in Karachi, de-weaponiza tion in the country, establishing the writ of state in Balochistan and FATA, a cohesive national agenda, new provinces, minimizing corruption, land reforms, farmer-friendly agricultural policy and importantly for a common man; the inflation. It will be little unfair not to discuss Tahir-ul-Qadri factor for electoral reform in these elections. Regardless of what TUQ achieved with this entire exercise, it is imperative that he certainly had an impact on pushing election commission for strict electoral reforms. All of a sudden, election commission approved rules of qualification for contesting elections and party elections etc. This is more for self-survival than for any sincere efforts for transparent elections. Elections in Pakistan have their own dynamics. This is why parties enchanting slogans of change have to get the ‘electable’ candidates in each constituency. Not only PML(N) has to embrace the once Musharraf’s supporters and PPP has to break into PML(N) and PML(Q) but a party like PTI also had to get the feudal lords, Musharraf’s supporters and infamous politicians. Fortunately for the people and unfortunately for the political parties, there has been significant awareness about electing the right candidate regardless of any party, race, prejudice, cast or other factors. In this tricky scenario, parties are trying to portray themselves as righteous and honorable entities; at the same time, they are playing their cards on the other front very effectively, i.e. dirty politics! Thanks largely to vibrant electronic and print media in Pakistan. Next few weeks will give a clearer picture of which political party is going to utilize this opportunity. But one thing can be stated with conviction that these elections will be unlike all previous elections in Pakistan. As mentioned earlier, media have the most crucial role to play. These are no doubt the most crucial elections in Pakistan after 1970. These elections will decide Pakistan’s destiny in next few decades.

Modern Art and Postmodern Art Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Modern Art and Postmodern Art - Thesis Example The paper "Modern Art and Postmodern Art" presents different styles of the modern and postmodern era. The following paper will outline post modernism and modernism in art through an argument that claims post modernism art captures styles from past periods and mixes them in a way which ignores their original use and redefines their use. In relation to visual arts, a work of art refers to physical two dimensional or three dimensional objects that are professionally established to fulfill a primarily aesthetic function. An artist’s â€Å"body of work† may also be considered as a work of art. The term is very popular in art galleries, museums, cultural heritage curators by the interested community. Objects that document conceptual art works but are not necessarily accepted by artistic conventions may also be classified as art objects. Visual arts can be referred to as art practices that make works that are naturally graphic. This may include ceramics, drawings, painting, sc ulptures, printmaking, design, crafts, as well as modern visual arts, such as photography, film making and architecture. Included within visual arts are the applied arts, such as interior design, graphic design, fashion design and industrial design, as well as decorative art. There exists a growing tendency of some regions of the world to increase the privilege of painting and sculpture. In the Western and East Asian culture, painting has been seen as portraying, to a very high degree, the imagination of an artist. According to the Chinese, scholar painting was the most highly valued style of portraying art. What makes an art work influential? The following paper will provide an analysis of various works of art and how they have developed over time to serve their purpose. Every generation is outlined by imagery. Possibly, the nineties was the grime association for the present generation. For the eighties, the iconic figure of Madonna led the generation from its grim point. For every century, there is an incidence that describes a generation and for each occasion, there is a picture that catches the moment. Such artworks noticed by the generations that have experienced hardships make artworks inspiring and influential. No individual ought to be immune from disapproval. As a result, works of art are not even the countless masters of art world, they are human beings. Artists have to treat their artworks as they look at acclaimed workings of prodigy made by artistes far skilled than we are. Connections between the various

Health South Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Health South - Essay Example Other five HealthSouth’s chief fiasco officers have been charged with fixing of business books. The first people were Weston Smith and William Owens, with falsely certifying the exactness of company accounts with the Exchange commission and securities. Therefore, among the provisions of the Sarbanes-Oxley corporate accountability law were ordained the previous year. David Dennis is also among the highly publicized case in Healthcare Corp. along with chief operating officer Thomas Mackey. They were charged with reimbursement after government analysis of the company. Universal Health services dismissed financial chief Kirk Gormn after expressing philosophical difference with the company’s audit firm. In United States, contemporary corporate fraud altered decimated private plans, market values and devalued public pension funds. In 2002, Dynegy, Tyco and WorldCom are among those companies that joined fraudulent accounting ranks. WorldCom’s Scott Sullivian and Enron Corporation Andrew Fastow are facing massive fraud charges linked to vast corporate collapse. The first tragic truism is the inconsistent of some managers in what they do and say (Crew 3). The FCC chair, Michael Powell, told the C-Span that the Clear Channel is likely to be too much concentrated. They may have issues connected to the company after the congress portrayed 1996 deregulation law. The FCC, therefore, were expected to undergo a scrutiny, but Powell did not do anything about it and neither did FCC. On the contrary, they talked without carrying out any action (Grow 6). Fundamentally, Health South CEO only cares about his interests and what his fraud would generate for the stakeholders and the company. He promised the stockholders that the company is doing its best to increase the price of shares that was not the case. As a result, Richard engaged into fraud to meet his promises leading to the financial scandal in the company. Halliburton had fleeced the Army $61 million for

Managment information system Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Managment information system - Research Paper Example However, it is possible for organizations to provide decision makers in management with raw data, which is automatically consolidated and processed. This data is given to them in a manner, which is understandable and easy to work on and these organizations are able to provide their decision makers with insightful information. These organizations utilize business intelligence processes and capabilities. This is a field of research, which is focused on the practical, in addition to, theoretical aspects, for organizations to achieve good information for them to make solid decisions. This research paper will seek to study this experience in, as well as how it helps organizations to shape data processes to get the correct information for quick and rational making of decisions. Objectives of the Research Study Find out what business intelligence is Find out the advantages that BI endows organizations with Find out the phases of implementation for business intelligence Find out the role of the Chief Information Officer in BI implementation Find out the best way to choose the tools of BI and the implementation partner Business Intelligence Business intelligence deals with the specific field of the processing and consolidation of data to retrieve information needed, for an organization, to make correct decisions. The main objective of this process is to give the correct knowledge, through various solutions, at the right time and to the right personnel (arizona.edu 1). In order to do this, it is essential have the correct mix of data collection methods, structures of data, data architectures, IT systems, and responsibilities to give meaningful information. When it comes to key performance indicators, or KPI, business intelligence has an impact that is proven. For instance, Return on Equity, or ROE, climbs to twice as high as it is in organizations that use tools for performance management widely as compared to organizations in the same industry that do not use them. In a ddition, over 60% of executive managers have said that using tools for performance management has a positive impact on the value for shareholders (arizona.edu 1). When most of the companies studied are assessing their business intelligence capabilities, they consider four levels. The first level is reporting, which is a core functionality of tools used in business intelligence, especially since its objective has to do with the creation of standard and recurrent reports in a manner that is user friendly, effective, and efficient (arizona.edu 1). By nature, reports are static and predefined and are generated through an end user request or periodic refreshing via automatic schedulers that can be uploaded on servers in the intranet or shared drives that are accessible to corporate users. The department’s key functionality, therefore, is reduced to consolidation and aggregation of data in an ideally automated and repetitive approach from sources of data that are trusted. The secon d level for the organizations is dashboards, which contain aggregated and high level strategic organizational data that is also inclusive of consolidated performance indicators and comparable presentations (arizona.edu 1). They are inclusive of interactive and static reports with the data being translated into illustrations, gauges, charts, and graphics to make communication simpler with regards to complex topics. The dashboards allow for primary interactions and

What Is Quantum Physics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

What Is Quantum Physics - Essay Example s paper on blackbody radiation, other scientists who contributed to its development include: Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schroedinger, and Niels Bohr. Meanwhile, Albert Einstein tried to disprove and modify it for many years due to its various theoretical issues with quantum mechanics (Jones, 2011). Quantum physics has five general ideas. First, energy is not continuous but comes in small discrete units. Its elementary particles behave both like particles and like waves, thus such particle movement is said to be in random. Fourth, it is physically impossible to determine the particles’ position and movement at the same time, otherwise when one is precisely known the other has less precise measurement. And lastly, the atomic world is nothing like the world we live in, making it incomparable and less comprehensible than ordinary logic (Feynman, et. al., 2011). Quantum physics evolved into various scientific applications. From the physics world, it has also taken some serious relevance in the fields of agriculture, medicine, even in anthroposophy, and religion. Quantum computers have also managed to break into the mainstream over the last decade as scientists managed to stop light in its tracks, thus overcoming one pratical hurdle, while the first quantumlogic gate was created in 2003 (McKee, 2006). Things so small have an effect. Thus, quantum physics play a significant role in the quantum nature of reality. Earlier, Niel Bohr was once quoted as saying: â€Å"Anyone who is not shocked by quantum theory has not understood it.† It only proves to show how deeply complex and complicated quantum physics is, and how one would simply be completely awed at its magic (Higgo,

Does Type A behaviour actually exist Assignment

Does Type A behaviour actually exist - Assignment Example It has also been asserted that subjects carrying the Type A behavior are hyperactive in their daily tasks. They are more aggressive, impatient, and competitive than Type B, if assigned with complicated or difficult tasks. Actually, Type As are ambitious or over ambitious than Type B in the psychological understanding. Looking forward to the Type A behavior, which is a cause of abnormalities (high impulse, aggression, hypertension), the researchers have tried to understand this behavior in the holistic manner. Comprehensive studies have been brought to understand of how Type A behavior affects a person’s life carrying it as a condition of psychological tension. Relevant research discussed (Empirical Evidence) The contemporary literature depicts that people with Type A behavior are undergone with both mental and physical health problems. Rosenman (1975) along with continued investigators assert that Type A behavior leads to catecholamine, cholesterol and high blood pressure (Gre gory, 2004, p.515). It is the environmental challenge and demand that results in larger reactions of the Type A people. On further, the empirical studies detail that ischemic heart disease in which there is low supply of blood to heart is caused by the Type A stress behavior. The study by David (2011) claims that persons with Type A are sensitive and they are partially instable than Type B when brought to life’s challenging situations (David, 2011). The study assessed the behavior of industrial employees working in an equivalent stress environment. It found that Type A employees are more emotionally strained than Type B who are calmed and relaxed at the time of work (David, 2011). The quantitative research by Chesney and Rosenman (1981) depicted that psychological behaviors of aggression, extroversion, or high impulsiveness are associated to Type A behavior which is the cause of all such behaviors (Chesney & Rosenman, 1981). Similarly, a meta-analysis review by Hinshaw (1987) associated anxiety, anger, depression and hostility to Type A behavior respectively (Hinshaw, 1987). Friedman and Rosenman (1974) categorized the 3000 healthy men in two groups; Type A and Type B. The investigators who were the starters of the research in the continuum of Type A depicted that Type A persons are vulnerable to stress, as where Type B are more easy going and relaxed people (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2010, p.496). The investigators’ study found that out of 3000 healthy men 257 died due to stress and CHA (Coronary Heart Disease) and they were specifically from the Type A group which associated to such stress function. This research by Friedman and Rosenman became the basis of research for behavioral specialists analyzing the continuum of Type A and its effects (Meyer & Rosenman, 1974). Background linked to the aims with reasons & some detail of method The literature analyzed so far has unfolded the fact that Type A persons are vulnerable to stress. They easily get stressed when brought to life’s challenging experience i.e. a critical task or an assessment. In the behavioral research it is asserted that there is a significant difference between Type A and Type B adaptations, actions and performances. Type As are aggressive, explosive and indulgent to stress as compare to Type B who are calmed and creative to complete their task or objective. This report is an investigation on how Type A behavior

Make up one Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Make up one - Essay Example As mentioned in the review, delay in time affects â€Å"jury’s decision† which prolongs a victim’s agony. A recent example of this is illustrated in the recent news report by New Haven Register : â€Å"A backlog at the state forensic laboratory is contributing to a delay in the case against a 33-year-old West Haven man accused of raping and killing a 7-year-old girl, a judge said Thursday†( Tinley, 2010) The second recommendation that should be done is to simply establish the right procedure for forensic requests. The first-come first-serve basis must be observed along with a system that thoroughly evaluates the importance of a request. This recommendation shows that the crime lab has difficulty in providing timely forensic results which deters catching criminals. â€Å"All labs have to be accredited, which costs money. But ask police and prosecutors and they will tell you it is the best expenditure that they ever made. Nobody hates bad lab work more than a prosecutor does, thats how cases get lost. They hate it. It is another win-win proposition for the criminal justice system†(Lyons & Burton, 2001, p. 10) A serial killer may be able to escape and continue to commit crime in other states as a result of this delay. Again, implementation of this depends on the managers of the crime laboratory. They may not be wanting in forensic skills, however they need to be trained about management so they can evaluate, and assess their current policies. The third recommendation that must be implemented the least is developing a system of notification for cross-over requests. Again, the recommendation I chose is all about establishing a system which can be delivered by the Technical Assistance Section. It is ironic that while victims are suffering and perpetrators are on the loose, evidence is ready but no one is fully aware of that. Its implementation depends on how the management of the

Physician Ratings -New York State Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Physician Ratings -New York State - Essay Example The second component arrangement is the doctor of medicine. Landing to this data will help a patient look for a doctor who is specially trained to diagnose, prescribe, treat, or operate any human condition or physical condition. Osteopathic physicians will have unlimited medicine practice here in New York and thus will need to have passed the national licensing examination sequence. Under a doctor’s profile, it will also be shown a Dr.’s survey received or not received. A Dr.’s survey not received may mean that the specific doctor has not submitted his profile yet and thus not much understood by the system (New York State Department of Health, 2012). There is also a special icon showing a doctor’s licensure. This icon is used to identify the doctors that have met the State’s standards of practicing medicine and have gone through and passed the licensing examination. The doctor will in that case receive a licensure implying that he/she is licensed by the medicine regulatory body. There is also a data column under a physician’s profile showing â€Å"none-reported† that comes throughout the physician profile. The existence of â€Å"none-reported† may mean that the physician didn’t self-write the information and that all information is applicable. The more the certifications, licensure, and compliance with the health board’s policies, the higher a physician’s rank will

Current US GDP Figures and the Current State of the US Economy Research Paper

Current US GDP Figures and the Current State of the US Economy - Research Paper Example Economic system is the process of construction, distribution and consumption by specific people within a particular geographical setting. The people can be individuals, association, and businesses or government (Mankiw, 2011). With these considerations, the paper intends to illustrate the current GDP figures and the current status of the US economy. Current US GDP Figures The GDP figures in the US have witnessed a considerable fluctuation in the past decade. In the United States, the GDP figure in the year 2013 stands at 15684.80 billion US Dollars. Approximately, 25.30% of US GDP represents the world economy. The figures related to the US GDP were illustrated by World Bank Group. From 2004, the GDP figures have endeavored to attain peak position but in 2010 it came down to 13893.3 billion US Dollars from 14219.3 billion US Dollars in 2009. Then again, from 2010 onwards, it has kept on increasing, which signifies a relatively stable condition of the US industrial sector (Trading Econ omics, 2013). US GDP Source: (Trading Economics, 2013) The production of goods and services by the labor and assets located inside the United States has significantly increased to 2.5% in the 2nd quarter of 2013 as reported by Bureau of Economic Analysis. According to the 1st quarter of 2013, the GDP was 1.1% and 0.1% in 2012 Quarter 4 (Cable News Network. A Time Warner Company, 2013). The total GDP in June 2013 was estimated to be US$16.6 trillion. The US has one of the strongest and industrially advanced economies in the world. Rental, leasing, real estates, educational services, health care, professional and insurance constitute over 40% of GDP (Trading Economics, 2013). The following illustration depicts the distribution of GDP in the leading industrial sectors in the US: Government related services: 13% of GDP Transportation, utilities, warehousing and information: 10% of GDP Retail and Wholesale trade Centre: 12% Manufacturing, Mining and Construction: 17% of GDP Agriculture: 1.5% Source: (Trading Economics, 2013) The recent boost in the economy has facilitated the US in terms of ensuring more exports and fixed investment. Moreover, with the enhancement of the economic purview, there has been an augmentation in expenditure by local government and reduction in the imports along with deceleration in private firms’ investment and in personal expenditure (Sivy, 2013). US GDP % Change on a Quarterly Basis (2011 to 2013, Q2) Source: (Cable News Network. A Time Warner Company, 2013). Current State of US Economy The history related to the US economy could be viewed with reference to the influence made by the European settlements. US economy is the world’s leading and technologically advanced economy. The nominal GDP of US was reported to be US$16.9 trillion in June 2013. US economy is determined to be a mixed economy and is able to uphold overall growth in GDP. The US has huge natural resources, advanced infrastructure and high productivity. The na tion is the 2nd largest producer related to natural gas and 3rd major producer of oil as well as it is 2nd biggest trading country in the world following China. From 2010, the US has remained the world’s largest producer (The Heritage Foundation, â€Å"United States†). After recording more than three years of uninterrupted economic growth, at present The US economy has recorded less than 2.25% growth and is estimated to slow down to less than 1% in the near future (Sivy, 2013). The US with an economic freedom score of 76 remains down in 2013 index and noted its

Carseat Safety Essay Example for Free

Carseat Safety Essay Every achievement in your child’s life is thrilling! First steps, first words, and even the first day of school (minus the tears). Even car seat milestones can seem exciting. The reality is, they should be looked at with a certain sense of fear, not desire. Every step in a car seat â€Å"progression† is actually a step down in your child’s safety. Rear facing is much, much safer than forward facing. There are many articles that discuss the reasons why your children should remain rear facing for the first full year and 20 pounds. Many of these same articles discuss that consequences of injury drop dramatically after the first year of life. However, it does not state that there are no consequences. The consequences may no longer be death from a completely severed spinal cord, but simply life-long injury, including complete paralysis. Research studies suggest that until children are at least four years of age, they are helpless in withstanding crash forces as well as adults; henceforth they should remain rear facing. In a crash, severe or deadly injuries are generally limited to the head and neck, in the case of a child being in a harnessed seat. When a child is in a forward facing seat, there is an incredible amount of stress put on the child’s neck, which must hold the large head back. A small child’s neck upholds great amounts of force in a crash. The straps hold the body back while the head is thrown forward, which can break the spinal cord. Also, the child’s head is at a greater risk in a forward facing seat as well. In a crash, the head is thrown outside the confines of the seat and can make dangerous contact with other passengers or intruding objects. Rear facing seats do a extraordinary job of protecting children simply because there is little to no force applied to the head, neck, and spine. When a child is in a rear facing seat, the head, neck and spine are all kept fully aligned and the child is allowed to ride down the crash while the back of the child seat absorbs the bulk of the crash force. The child’s head is contained within the seat, and the child is must less likely to come into contact with anything that might cause head injury.

Conflicts Are Inevitable In Human Life Politics Essay

Conflicts Are Inevitable In Human Life Politics Essay Conflicts are inevitable in human life and existence and are a necessary part of life. Conflicts are necessary for change in human society since they help to build relationships in groups, establish a groups identity, build internal cohesion in groups and can lead to balance of power in society as well as create new rules and laws (Coser, 1956). However, when conflicts are violent, and depending on the nature and type of intervention schemes used, they remain unresolved and can become protracted disrupting policy-making and development since attention is diverted from issues that will otherwise improve the lives of people to the conflict. Consequently, it is important to resolve violent conflicts to prevent these conflicts from diverting attention from issues of development. Historically, the first and second world wars resulted in massive destruction of property and human life and a decrease in levels of socio-economic development in poor nations (Blattman Miguel, 2008). During the Second World War, for instance, about 60 million people died, a new wave of arms race arose and nations like Germany had many properties destroyed (Blattman Miguel, 2008). Then came the Cold War with its manifestations of proxy and quasi conflicts in developing countries of Europe, Africa, Asia and America. Violent conflicts poses serious threats to human security, peace, life, stability, social and economic activities; weakens institutions; breaks social cohesion; and causes humanitarian tragedies such as internal displacement, refugeeism and rape (Zeleza, 2008). Indeed, violent conflict is one main impediment to development because it can seriously hinder development efforts spilling over borders, reducing economic growth and prosperity (Ali, 2006). The examples of Haiti, Bosnia, Burundi, Sudan and Somalia are worth noting as development in these states has been seriously curtailed because violent conflicts have endangered peoples lives and continue to worsen the poverty situation in these countries. During the conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the country lost 2 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as well as losses in other economic indicators (Oelbaum, 2007). In the West African sub-region, countries like Liberia, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, La Cote dIvoire and Guin ea have had violent conflicts with their devastating consequences on stability, political and social development of these states (Adetula, 2006). More than 250,000 lives were lost in Liberia and millions worth of infrastructure destroyed (Adetula, 2006). During violent conflicts, farmers cannot go to their farms to work for fear of losing their lives and farms are set ablaze leading to the destruction of farm produce. Traders and businessmen cannot engage in commercial activities leaving markets deserted. Properties of individuals and households are lost through arson and looting. Local revenue mobilizations are seriously curtailed due to the breakdown of commercial activities and security. Moreover, schools are closed down affecting the work of teachers and students since they cannot attend school which negatively affects academic performance. Businesses and most of the workforce also relocate to other places where there is peace (absence of violence). Consequently, many development efforts are negatively affected, because peace which is needed to ensure development is absent. However, where peace prevails and there is no violent conflict, security is guaranteed and the environment becomes conducive for engaging in economic and agricultural activities and, peoples livelihoods can be ensured (Francis, 2006). Many people can move about freely without restrictions since their security is guaranteed. Also, local investments and businesses are attracted to peaceful areas than places where there are violence and, generally, people are able to participate in the development process. Thus peace remains a pre-requisite for development since development can best be pursued in a violent free environment. The end of the Cold War saw a spate of new and different conflicts in many parts of the world with specific causes with Africa getting her share of these conflicts. These were intra- state conflicts which included predominantly, ethnic conflicts between rival ethnic groups, conflicts over succession and power struggles within the state and conflicts over the control of state resources (Idowu, 2005). From 1946-2010, the world has had 243 conflicts, out of which 36 have been active since 2009 (Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP), 2010). Most of these conflicts in several parts of Africa have often been driven by ethnic contest for power, land, resources and the struggle for identity and, in recent times, political infiltrations (Osaghae, 2005). These ethnic conflicts, such as the Sudanese, Burundian and Democratic Republic of Congos conflicts, have created deep-seated hatred and destructions with their attendant manifestations of genocide, mistrust, inequality in the distribution of p ower and resources among ethnic groups in these states. Many of these intra-state conflicts became protracted and thus affected development with severe consequences not only for various nations but individuals and families. Ghana has often been described at both local and international levels as an oasis of peace and stability in a continent besieged by conflicts. The peaceful organization of the 2008 general elections has made Ghana a beacon of hope for democracy, good governance, stability and peace in Africa. The American Fund for Peace in 2009 described Ghana as the most peaceful and stable country in Africa (Myjoyonline, July 15, 2009). Unlike her neighbours, Ghana remains relatively peaceful and has not experienced any violent conflict of a national scale. However, Ghanas image as a beacon of peace in Africa is marred by some internecine ethnic, land and chieftaincy conflicts which sometimes result into violent ones with negative consequences for human lives and local level development (Gyimah, Kane Oduro, 2009). Most conflicts in Ghana are localized inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic disputes that mainly result from disputes over chieftaincy, land, identity and resources and, in more recent years, political and economic connections (Kendie Akudugu, 2010; Tsikata Seini, 2004). Although some of these ethnic conflicts have always remained localized, they have often drawn national and international attention since their consequences have a toll on national resources and development (Agyeman, 2008). Resources such as financial allocations or revenue mobilizations which otherwise could be used for development are channeled into maintaining peace and security in these areas. Also, localized activities such as farming, industry, commerce, busin ess investments and livelihoods are disrupted. The Konkomba and Nanumba/Dagomba conflict in 1994/95, for instance, resulted in the loss of 2000 lives and 18,900 animals, over 500,000 tubers of yam destroyed, 60,000 acres of crops set on fire, 144 farming villages burnt, 78,000 people displaced and millions of property belonging to the state and indigenes destroyed (Mahama, 2003). It is worth noting that ethnic relations among many of the diverse ethnic groups in Ghana have remained cordial as compared to others in the continent such as Nigeria, Rwanda and La Cote dIvoire (Gyimah, Kane Oduro, 2009). This is because ethnic relations among the ethnic groups in Ghana have not degenerated into conflict of a national scale as it is the case with Nigeria, Rwanda and Cote dIvoire. There have, however, been very devastating and protracted ethnic strifes among some ethnic groups in Ghana. Notable among these are the intra-ethnic conflicts among the Dagombas, the Ewes of Peki-Tsito and the inter-ethnic conflicts between the Kusasis and Mamprusis, Konkomba and Nanumba/Dagomba, Nkonya (Guan) and Alavanyo (Ewe) people, the Akropong-Akwapim and Abiriw people and Gonja and Nawuri people (Agyeman, 2008). Many of these localized conflicts in Ghana have assumed a protracted nature with occasional flaring up of violence which has negative impact on local and general development in these areas (Akwetey, 1996). The Dagbon chieftaincy, Bunkpurugu-Yunyo, the Buipe chieftaincy and Akropong-Akwapem and Abiriw land conflicts are yet to be resolved, and occasional violence in these areas pose grave danger to localized development efforts and many poor and marginalized people become the principal victims of these violence. One such conflict also is the Bawku conflict. The conflict is a deep-seated and longstanding ethno-political conflict between the Kusasis and Mamprusis in the Bawku Traditional Area of Ghana. The Bawku Traditional Area is one of the largest areas in the Upper East Region of Ghana located in the north-eastern part of the region and shares borders with Togo and Burkina Faso (GhanaDistricts.com, 2009, June 12). The economic base of the area is mainly agriculture, although trade and commerce are also conducted. Ethnically, the Bawku Traditional Area is occupied by Kusasis, Mamprusis, Busangas, Hausas, Mossis, Bimobas, Frafras and other minor groups with the Kusasis being the majority in terms of population (Bawku Municipal Assembly, 2006). The Bawku conflict is identity-based, and revolves around the claim for traditional political power (chieftaincy) between the Kusasis and Mamprusis. The contest between the Kusasis and Mamprusis over the Bawku chieftaincy has its roots in colonial times. Since the 1930s, the conflict has taken different twists and has remained intense and unresolved, and therefore protracted. There appears to be apparent political interference in the conflict and this has intensified violence in Bawku, stalling development efforts in the area (Lund, 2003). The primary actors in the conflict the Kusasis and Mamprusis have taken entrenched positions making resolution efforts difficult and almost impossible. Since the inception of the Bawku conflict, frantic efforts have been made at resolving it. The colonial government established the Opoku-Afari Committee in 1957 to help resolve the conflict when disputing claims for the chieftaincy started. The enactment of National Liberation Council (NLC) Decree 112 and Provisional National Defence Council Law (PNDCL) 75, which although were not directly intended for the Bawku conflict only, was also used in a bid to help end the conflict, but these have failed. Governments have also used mediation to help end the conflict. In 2008, the then President of Ghana, John A. Kufuor, invited both the Kusasis and Mamprusis to The Castle (seat of Ghanas Government) to broker peace between them but this failed. This was followed by mediation by the National Peace Council (NPC), but the conflict still continued. In March 2009, following the outbreak of violence, Vice President John Mahama embarked on a mediation mission to help resolve the conflict between th e two factions but the violence still continued. This was again followed by a visit by President John Atta Mills to Bolgatanga to help broker peace between the two groups but it also failed to bring the desired peace. All these mediation efforts have thus failed to end the conflict. The two ethnic groups have also resorted to the law courts to back their claim for the Bawku skin. These include writ filed by the Mamprusis at the divisional court to reverse the Governor Generals decision in 1957; the Kusasis counter writ at the Appeal Court in 1958 to overturn the ruling by the divisional court; and again the Mamprusis court action for their claim to the Bawku skin in 2003. All these court actions have apparently failed to bring an end to the conflict. Governments have also instituted internal peace-keeping operations by deploying security personnel to the area and used the imposition of curfews to manage the conflict, but the conflict still rages on. A number of CSOs /NGOs since 2001 have also made efforts at mediating to end the conflict through peace building processes and conflict resolution mechanisms. These efforts include the Bawku Peace Accord reached between the stakeholders in the conflict at the Damongo Peace Agreement, which was spearheaded by a consortium of NGOs mediating in the conflict, including Action Aid Ghana, the West African Network for Peacebuilding (WANEP), Advocacy Peace Group IBIS (Ghana), the Catholic Relief Services (CRS), the Christian Council of Ghana and the Bawku East Womens Development Association (BEWDA). The National Peace Council (NPC) has also mediated and drawn up a roadmap to peace but has not helped to end the conflict. In addition, an Inter-ethnic Peace Committee was formed in 2010 by both ethnic groups to help resolve the conflict (WANEP, 2010). The aforementioned efforts have all failed to bring the needed resolution of the conflict and peace to the Traditional Area. The protracted nature of the conflict has implications for development in the area. Its continuation poses threats to commerce, agriculture, education, healthcare, security and general development of the traditional area. When peace and security in the area is guaranteed, sustained development is likely to be pursued. Statement of the problem Violent conflicts have very devastating consequences on local level development because they produce a cycle of violence and depending on the nature and type of intervention, can result in the protraction of conflicts. The continuous violence in Bawku as a result of the conflict has consequences on the development of the area, as well as the resources of the nation in general. The violence in the area is a bane to agriculture, commerce, human lives, property and infrastructure, and is exacerbating the poverty situation in the area (Daily Graphic, June 8, 2008). Reports of the conflict indicate that there is general insecurity and lawlessness in the area, and this results in the imposition of frequent curfews which curtail free movement of people and the brutalization of civilians during curfew hours (Amnesty International Ghana, 2008). Localized development efforts like agriculture and commerce are curtailed. Besides, cross-border trading and other commercial activities in the Bawku area have also been affected. The loss of lives in the area has become a daily routine as many lives are unaccounted for. There is also continuous destruction of property and infrastructure. In the wake of the violence in December 2007, 155 shops and many houses were burnt and several people displaced (Ghanaweb, January 7, 2008). The state continues to spend money and resources in deploying security personnel to the area to maintain peace. The conflict leads to proliferation of illegal arms which continue to be used in perpetuating violence. The overall impact of all these is deepening of the poverty situation in the area. With the realization by government, CSOs/NGOs, some international organizations and even the indigenes of the area of the need for a final resolution of the conflict, many efforts have been made to resolve the conflict to bring sustainable peace to promote development in the area. However, efforts by government, NGOs and other stakeholders at finding a lasting solution to the conflict through committees of enquiry, mediation, inter-ethnic peace dialogues, peacekeeping operations, law and order and the use of the court system have not yielded the desired results at finding sustainable peace and a final resolution to the protracted conflict between the two ethnic groups. Critical analyses of the protracted nature of the conflict bring into question what alternative resolution mechanisms can be used to resolve the conflict or complement both government and CSOs/NGOs efforts at finally resolving the conflict to enhance peace and development in the area. Besides, the protracted nature of the conflict and frequent eruption of violence directly have a relationship with development and hence the need to analyze the ramifications of the conflict on socio-economic development of the Bawku Traditional Area. It is in the light of the above that this study seeks to research into how the conflict in the Bawku Traditional Area affects socio-economic development of the area. Objectives of the study The general objective of the study was to examine how the ethnic conflict in the Bawku Traditional Area affects socio-economic development in the area. The specific objectives of the study were to: Ascertain the effects of the Bawku ethnic conflict on agriculture in the area; Examine the effects of the conflict on commercial activities in the area; Examine the effects of the conflict on general security in the traditional area; Ascertain the effects of the conflict on education and health care in the area; Examine the prospects for peace in the area; and Make recommendations for peaceful resolution of the conflict. Research questions The study employed the following research questions in investigating the problem: What are the effects of the Bawku ethnic conflict on agriculture in the traditional area? What are the effects of the conflict on commercial activities in the area? How is the conflict in the Bawku Traditional area affecting security in the area? What are the effects of the conflict on education and health care in the area? What are the prospects for peace in the traditional area? Relevance of the study The frequent recurrence of the Bawku conflict remains a source of worry to many people, the inhabitants of Bawku, government and NGOs. Despite government efforts and a lot of efforts by NGOs that have been made to resolve the conflict, the erratic and frequent outbreak of the conflict between the two feuding ethnic groups seem to elude any workable solution for a final settlement and sustainable peace and this tends to be negatively affecting local level development. It is claimed that government has spent more than GHÂ ¢648 million on maintaining security in northern Ghana alone since 2002 (Kumateh, 2005 cited in Aganah, 2008). It has been the desire and pursuit of government and NGOs to resolve the ethnic conflict in Bawku and other ethnic conflicts around the country to minimize their impact on development efforts. The attempts over the years at resolving the conflict have all failed to bring lasting peace to Bawku. This study will provide and add to empirical knowledge on the nexus between ethnic conflict and development, as well as empirical information on the effects of protracted conflicts on development. The results of this study will also provide pragmatic information to help resolve the Bawku conflict and other protracted ethnic conflicts around the country. It is equally hoped that the findings and recommendations of this study would be of interest to government, who is a major stakeholder in the conflict, NGOs and other interest groups involved in conflict and development. All researches on the conflict are aimed at how to resolve the conflict. This study examines the effects of the conflict on development to inform all stakeholders on the deleterious ramifications of the conflict in the hope that the protagonists would see the need for peace. Organization of the study The study is organized into six chapters. Chapter One presents the introductory part of the whole study which includes the background to the study, the statement of the problem, the objectives of the study, the research questions, the relevance of the study and how the study is organized. Chapter Two examines a review of relevant literature on the study. This covers relevant issues such as development, conflict, the impact of conflict on development and the relationship between conflict resolution and development. Theoretical bases and a conceptual framework of the study are also examined in this chapter. Chapter Three examines the Bawku conflict into detail tracing its historical basis, dynamics, causes and current developments. Chapter Four deals with the methodology used in carrying out the study. It comprises a description of the study area, the study design, the population, the sample for the study, the sampling techniques, the data collection techniques and the data analysis procedure. The presentation and analyses of the results are the focus of Chapter Five. Chapter Six finally presents summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations. CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction This chapter reviews literature related to the subject matter of the study. These include the review of concepts as well as the theoretical and conceptual frameworks for the study. Development The term development has been used and defined variously by different scholars at length. However, the term is generally about change and growth in human well-being at the individual, community, regional, national, or global circles. Historically, development used to be equated to economic growth and generally concerned with the ability of a countrys economy to increase and sustain its Gross National Product (GNP) or Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in real items. In this way, development was measured in terms of real growth in per capita income (Schoeman, 1998). Since the 1950s, the meaning of the term development has changed from merely looking at development as an increase in GNP or GDP. According to Stewart (2004), this is a very inadequate characterization and definition of the term development. There is now a change towards alternative development strategies due to the inadequacy of the economic growth paradigm (Kendie, 2002). Development generally is about improvement and qualitative change in the lives of individual people or an entire society. Development, according to Todaro (1997, p. 9), is: a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes and institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and eradication of poverty. This involves changes in human conditions which involve important facets such as economic well-being, security, reduction in inequality and poverty, the absence of violent conflict and its proper resolution and management. Todaro Smith (2009) observe that there are three important aspects of development: Raising peoples level of living their incomes and consumption levels of food, education, medical services etc.; Creating conditions conducive for the growth of peoples self-esteem through the establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions that promote human dignity and respect; and Increasing peoples freedom by enlarging the range of their choice variables by increasing varieties of consumer goods and services. Stewart (2004) equally conceptualized development simply as a progress in human well-being. This includes well-being in the general life of human beings including peoples health, education and security. The reference to security presupposes the absence of violent conflict and a proper resolution and management of these conflicts when they occur. Similarly, Ibeanu (2006, p. 10) posits that development: is a process of improving the conditions in which human beings live. Ibeanu (2006) believes that these conditions emanate from a complex interplay of both the natural environment and the social or inter-human environment. These include peace, justice and security which are important tenets of development. Amartya Sen (1999) also sees development simply as freedom. that is freedom in all forms economic, social and political freedom. Sen believes that political freedom empowers individuals to build their capabilities for development. One important tenet that can ensure development is human security the ability of people to be safe. Violent conflict which constitutes an obstacle to security is a serious impediment to development, and development cannot be realized in an insecure and conflictual environment. The UNDP Human Development Report of 1994 notes that human security is an important part of development and development can only occur in a peaceful society (UNDP, 1994). Human security Security, according to Francis (2006, p.22), is generally about the condition or feeling safe from harm or danger, the defence, protection and preservation of core values, and the absence of threats to acquire values. Security is about conditions that ensure human existence and survival. Peace, development and justice, especially in Africa, are important conditions of security since the absence of these can create conditions for conflict and insecurity (Francis, 2006). The security of humans remains a very important part of their well-being and development. The term human security was first initiated in 1994 by the UNDP Human Development Report to focus security from the point of view of people, as opposed to that of the security of states (Jolly Ray, 2006). Thus human security is people-centred security or security with a human face, which places human beings-rather than states-as the focal point of security considerations (United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) , 2009). Since then, discussions on security have been focused on human security than states security. In defining human security, the UNDP (1994, p. 3) states that: for too long, the concept of security has been shaped by the potential for conflict between states. For too long, security has been equated with threats to a countrys borders. For too long, nations have sought arms to protect their security. For most people today, a feeling of insecurity arises more from worries about daily life than from the dread of a cataclysmic world event. Job security, health security, environmental security, security from crime, these are the emerging concerns of human security all over the world. The simplest definition of human security, according to Jolly Ray (2006, p. 6), is primarily an analytical tool that focuses on ensuring security for the individual, not the state. Tadjbakhsh (2005) also conceptualizes human security as freedom from fear and freedom from want. That is to be secure is to be free from both fear (of physical, sexual or psychological abuse, violence, persecution, or death) and from want (of gainful employment, food, and health). The UN Commission on Human Security (CHS) (2003) gives a broader definition of human security as the protection of the vital core of all human lives in ways that enhance human freedoms and human fulfillment. According to the CHS, this means: Protecting basic rights and freedoms; Protecting people from severe and widespread threats and circumstance; Motivating and empowering people to take their destiny into their own hands; and Providing the necessary political, social, environmental, economic, military as well as cultural framework and systems within which people can live meaningful and dignified lives (CHS, 2003, p.4). Thus, the key premises of human security contained in the UNDP 1994 Report (1994) are: (i) its focus on freedom from fear and freedom from want, and (ii) its four emphasis on universality, interdependence, prevention, and people-centredness. The elements of human security include violent conflict; poverty; humanitarian crises; epidemic diseases; injustice; inequality; fear; and wants (Alkire, 2003). Violent conflict remains one major threat to human security in that it threatens peoples opportunities for their well-being including their freedom from fear and want, and limit their opportunities for development. Violent conflicts deny humans the security to engage in their commercial, agricultural and other activities. According to the CHS (2003), some strategies must be put in place to ensure the security of people in relation to violent conflict. These include protecting people caught up in violent conflict through incorporating in the agenda of international, regional and security organizations, designing a holistic approach to protect people caught up in violent conflict and curbing further violence; empowering people recovering from violent conflict through conflict resolution and prevention and building social protraction systems for the poor after conflict. Conflict Conflict is one of the most inevitable things in life and occurs at all levels of human society at home, school, the family, society or at the work level. The term, however, has been defined and used differently. According to Lund (1997), conflict occurs when two or more parties pursue incompatible interests or goals through actions that the parties try to undo or damage each other. These parties could be individuals, groups or countries. The parties interests can differ over access to resources, the control of political or traditional power, their identity and values or ideology (Maiese, 2003). The realization of these needs and interests by people can lead to conflict. When two groups or individuals such as ethnic groups pursue incompatible interests and needs which could either be political, economic, social or cultural, they can engage in conflict which can be violent. In the opinion of Coser (1956, p. 121), conflict occurs when two or more people engage in a struggle over values and claims to status, power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals. Coser seeks to argue that people in conflict are in competition or struggle over their identity, resources or power in which the conflicting parties attempt to undo one another. One thing that is worth mentioning in Cosers definition is the fact that it identifies the causes of conflicts which include struggles over peoples identity, power and resources. Conflict, therefore, is a struggle which is either positive or negative between two individuals or groups in pursuit of interests and goals on which they sharply disagree. Ethnic conflicts According to Richardson Jr. Sen (1996), an ethnic conflict is a struggle between rival ethnic groups who seek to get control of political power to maintain it. This is usually done through ethnicity, which plays an important role in mobilizing, structuring and managing ethnic groups and institutions. This definition recognizes that political power is the rationale behind ethnic conflict. Indeed, many ethnic groups fight over the control of political power which can either be state or traditional power in order to gain control over political institutions within the state or traditional area. However, many proximate causes such as the struggle for resources could also account for ethnic conflicts. Political power cannot, therefore, be the only cause of ethnic conflicts. According to Maiese (2003), ethnic conflicts are conflicts over peoples identity that are internal among or between ethnic groups within a country who tend to compete for resources, power or claims over their status and not between states. To this end, Irobi (2005) and Agyeman (2008) maintain that ethnic conflicts which are conflicts over race, identity and language become complex, and this makes it very difficult to resolve them primarily due to ethnicity which defines the totality of an individuals existence including his hopes, fears and sense of future. Ethnic conflicts have induced over 70 percent of conflicts in the world [Center for Development and conflict Management (CIDCM), 2009]. Africa, Asia, America and Europe have all experienced varying degrees of ethnic conflicts with dire consequences. In Africa, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Nigeria and Ghana have experienced devastating ethnic conflicts. There are also longstanding ethnic conflicts in Sri Lanka, Kosovo, Bosnia and former Yugoslavia. Generally, ethnic conflicts result from

The Head Start Child Development Children And Young People Essay

The Head Start Child Development Children And Young People Essay The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework provides Head Start and other early childhood programs with a description of the developmental building blocks that are most important for a childs school and long-term success (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2010, p.1). All children, ages 3 to 5 years old, are expected to advance in all of the areas of child development and early learning that are written by the Framework. All federally funded Head Start programs are also expected to develop and implement a program that ensures such progress is made (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2010). The Framework is the base foundation of the Head Start Approach to School Readiness. It aligns with and builds from the five essential domains of school readiness identified by the National Educational Goals Panel and lays out essential areas of learning and development (United States Department of Health and Human Services, Decembe r 2010). The five essential domains outlined in the Framework are: language and literacy, cognition and general knowledge, social and emotional development, approaches to learning, and physical development and health . There are many reasons that children enter daycare and other childcare settings in the years leading up to beginning kindergarten. The primary reason that children enter preschool, either private or public, is a parent returning to work, especially during the first one or two years two of a childs life (Peyton, Jacobs, OBrien, Roy, 2001). Statistics from outside the home preschool programs suggest that non-family child care can provide lasting benefits to children (Campbell, Ramey, Pungello, Sparling, Miller-Johnson, 2002). The later preschool are normally the years that prepare children to start school (Fram, Kim Sinha, 2011). Head Start aims to provide the resources necessary to strengthen the school readiness and general development of pre-kindergarten children who come from low-income families, and a growing prekindergarten movement has extended this type of approach to a wider range of children with growing success (Barnett, Lamy, Jung, 2005). The FACES 2003 cognitive assessment data showed that most children entered Head Start with early academic skills that were below national norms on standardized measures of vocabulary, early math, early reading, and early writing (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2006, p.2). The cohort stated that the mean standard score for all U.S. children is 100, with a standard deviation of 15. Children who entered Head Start in the fall of 2003 had mean standard scores of 85.6 for vocabulary, 88.4 for early math, 95.0 for early reading, and 86.5 for early writing. These scores were expected because many of the enrolled Head Start children come from disadvantaged families with very low parent education (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2006). A 2012 study by Baroody and Diamond stated that reading is an essential area of academic competence that is central to childrens successful development and functioning as adult citizens in society (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2000, p.10), and learning to read is a main focus of instruction in early elementary grades. Children who are successful in reading are also more likely to do well in mathematics and other areas of academic achievement (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2000). Other studies on a nationally representative sample of young children have confirmed that children who participated in a center-based program between two and three years of age demonstrated the strongest cognitive and developmental outcomes at school entry (Loeb, Bridges, Bassok, Fuller Rubmerger, 2007). Language and Literacy Children begin their language development early in life. This includes both receptive and expressive language, as well as understanding and possibly using one or more languages (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2010). Children must be allowed to interact socially with other children and adults to fulfill their language development. Children need to have a literacy knowledge to be successful in school. These skills include the basis for learning to read and write, such as basic concepts about printed materials, the alphabet, and letter-sound relationships (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2010). Research has shown that children who are interested in reading and literacy activities tend to participate more and are likely to become more proficient readers than children who lack literacy interest. Both literacy interest and engaging in literacy activities, both at home and at school, are important components in childrens early literacy experiences (Baroody Diamond, 2012). There have been several studies on literacy skill development through play, which embed literacy materials within play settings in preschool programs, that have normally shown increases in childrens use of literacy materials and engagement in literacy acts (Bergen, 2002). Research shows that children who enter kindergarten with knowledge in language and literacy are more likely to succeed in schools, and children who are severely lacking in areas such as recognizing letters, phonological awareness, and overall language ability are more likely to experience trouble in learning to read (Bredekemp, 2004). Children who enter the Head Start program come with a wide range of skills. In 2000, the highest quarter of Head Start children were at or above the 50th percentile in early language skills, with the lowest children ranked in the bottom 2 percent (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003, p. iii). The mean standard score for all U.S. children is 100, with a standard deviation of 15. The mean standard scores for children who entered Head Start during the fall of 2003 were 85.6 for vocabulary, 95.0 for early reading, and 86.5 for early writing (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). Researchers have documented that vocabulary, letter recognition, and phonological awareness are skills needed for children to successfully learn to read. Biemiller (2006) observed that vocabulary is a telling predictor of reading comprehension. A 1997 study by Cunningham and Stanovich showed a measurable connection between oral receptive vocabulary in first grade and reading comprehension in eleventh grade. Whitehurst and Lonigan (1998) and Ehri and Roberts (2006) both reported that letter recognition and phonemic awareness are two of the skills that children need to become proficient readers (United States Department of Health and Human Services, January 2010). Emergent literacy is a key component of school readiness, and early differences in emergent literacy in preschool tend to be made worse throughout the elementary years (Noble, Duch, Darvique, Grundleger, Rodriquez, Landers 2011). Noble et al. found that randomized trials suggested that when struggling parents are taught the parenting skills needed to help their children engage in reading and reading related activities, childrens emergent literacy skills will improve. Huge steps in reading are being seen when children are engaged in such emergent literacy strategies both at home and school (Noble, Duch, Darvique, Grundleger, Rodriquez, Landers 2011). Children love to be read to. Its a small thing that parents can do to improve their childs success in school. Research suggests the skills that children need to become proficient writers include vocabulary knowledge, phonological sensitivity skills, letter knowledge, and an understand of conventional print, all of which contribute to their oral language skills (Powell, Diamond, Bojczyk, Gerde, 2008, p.425) In a qualitative study, teachers in one Head Start classroom stated that it is important to expose children to the alphabet, but cautioned that the exposure should not be forced upon them (Powell, Diamond, Bojczyk, Gerde, 2008, p.427). According to the 2006 FACES Brief, the Head Start program has been stressing the importance of early literacy skills, which includes vocabulary and alphabet knowledge. The average number of letters that Head Start children know by the end of the program year continues to increase. Research shows gains in letter identification and early reading during the Head Start year have increased across the three FACES cohorts, 2000, 2003, and 2006. (United States Dep artment of Health and Human Services, December 2006). In 2006, the Congressional goal of knowing at least 10 letters was being met. (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2006). The average number of letters that 4-year-old and 5-year-old children in Head Start could identify correctly has increased significantly since the 1997-98 program year. The mean number of letters correctly identified by children of these ages at the end of the 1997-98 program year was 7. At the beginning of the 2000-2001 school year, children identified 4 letters, and by the end knew an average of 9 letters (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003, p. iii). By the end of 2003-04 program year, the children could identify 10 on average. (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2006). The 2012 study by Baroody and Diamond studied childrens alphabet knowledge using the FACES QRS Letter Naming assessment (Westat, 2003). Children were shown three plates that included eight to nine uppercase letters. The child was asked to name all of the letters he/she knew. The data the researcher used was the number of letters the child named correctly. Due to the fact that childrens alphabet knowledge scores were not normally distributed, Baroody and Diamond created a dichotomous variable: knowing few letters (0-9) or knowing many or most letters (10-26). These categories were based on both the distribution of these data and Head Start letter-knowledge objectives (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008). Sixty-seven percent of children (54 children) named few letters, and 33 percent (26 children) named 10 or more letters. Children who know more letters and do better on letter identification show higher levels of literacy interest. This is important because letter knowl edge is a good predictor of childrens reading development (Baroody Diamond, 2012). Childrens code-related skills in preschool, which include letter-word identification and alphabet knowledge, are related to kindergarten literacy skills, which are also related to reading and language skills in first through fourth-grade reading comprehension (Storch Whitehurst, 2002). Each Head Start FACES cohort includes a nationally representative sample of 3- to 4-year-old children entering Head Start for the first time in the fall of the program year, their families, Head Start teachers, classrooms, centers, and programs. Children in FACES are administered a one-on-one assessment of their development that includes language and literacy. There have been five FACES cohorts (1997, 2000, 2003, 2006 and 2009) and they show significant gains over fifteen years of school readiness in language and literacy, most notably in narrowing the gap between Head Start children and other preschool-age children, especially in vocabulary knowledge and early writing skills (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). FACES cohorts use the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-III)(vocabulary) and the Woodcock-Johnson Revised (WJ-R) achievement battery to look at the childrens development (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). The FACES 2000 Executive Summary showed more progress in letter recognition skills than in the 1997-98 cohort (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2003). In 2000, FACES found that students entering Head Start had a mean standard score of 85.3 on the PPVT-III which increased to 89.1 in the spring (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). Scores on the Woodcock-Johnson Revised in early writing increased from 85.1 in the fall to 87.1 in the spring (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). The FACES 2003 cohort found more gains vocabulary and early writing skills. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III found a mean standard score of 85.6 in the fall, that increased to 90.6 over the course of the school year (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2006). The WJ-R showed a decrease in early writing skills from a 86.5 mean standard to an 85.9 (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2006). FACES 2006 also showed improvements in vocabulary and early writing with mean standard scores of 89.4 and 97.5, respectively (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). In FACES 2009, they used an adapted version of the PPVT which showed that children enrolled in Head Start scored ahead of the non-Head Start children with scores of 257.50 and 251.43 (United States Department of Health and Human Services, January 2010). As shown in the 5 Head Start FACES cohorts, data shows impacts on childrens cognitive development while they are in their Head Start year (United States Department of Health and Human Services, January 2010). Cognitive and General Knowledge Cognitive development encompasses areas such as social science, science, math and logic and reasoning skills. It is only one component of a childs development, but is just as important to a childs learning as is physical, social and emotional systems. When looking at mathematics, it includes the conceptual understanding of numbers, their relationships, combinations, and operations. Science includes the ability to gather information about the natural and physical world and organize that information into knowledge and theories. Social studies looks at understanding people and how they relate to others and the world around them. Logic and reasoning skills include the ability to think through problems and apply strategies for solving them (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2010). Jean Piaget was a psychologist who studied the cognitive development in children for over 50 years. He studied his own children and developed his theory of cognitive development. He believed that children acquire knowledge through interacting with the physical environment around them. Piaget believed that cognitive development occurs through the process of assimilation and accommodation. He found that when the child encounters something in the environment that he or she does not understand, the child has to expand, through accommodation, his or her view of the world and thereby restore equilibrium (Zigler Bishop-Josef, p. 15). Professors from Georgetown University constructed a cognitive study using students in Tulsa, Oklahoma to test the success of universally available pre-Kindergarten. Oklahoma has the highest proportion of 4-year-olds enrolled in pre-Kindergarten, 63%, of any state in the union. The study compared two groups of children of very nearly the same age, one of which had attended pre-K and one of which had not. The first group of 5-year-olds barely missed the birthday cut-off for pre-K and the other group turned 5 by the cutoff. The first group were about to start pre-K and the second group had experienced one year of pre-K and were starting kindergarten in the fall. Since the children were literally just days or weeks apart in age, they were expected to have similar skills, unless the experience of pre-K had made a difference. The one year of pre-K did make a difference. In three cognitive exams, letter-word identification, spelling and applied problems, Tulsa students who had pre-K substan tially outperformed those who had not. Statistically significant differences were found among every race of students, and among every socioeconomic group. Quality early education benefits all social and economic groups of children (Calman Tarr-Whelan, 2005). Mathematics helps children make sense of their world outside of school and helps them construct a foundation for success in school. Math is for everyone. If math is taught properly at the early childhood level, all children should become proficient in it (Copley, 2010). Children who entered Head Start in the fall of 2000 had academic skill and knowledge levels well below national averages. Academic levels were comparable to the levels found FACES 1997. (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). The skills that children have when they start Head Start are influenced by home life and other early childhood settings before Head Start. FACES 2000 found that children who entered Head Start with lower math skills made greater gains than the children who came in with average scores. FACES found that students entering Head Start in 2000 scored an 89.7 on the Applied Problem (early math) task in the fall, but scores rose to 89.0 in the spring. This score shows entering students at about the 21st percentile in early math skills, when compared to American children in the same age range. The mean average standard score is 100, with a standard deviation of 15. Scores for the highest quarter of children entering Head Start was 104.7 in math. Therefore, these Head Start children rank in the top 50 percent when compared to all U.S. preschoolers (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). FACES 2006 used the ECLS mathematics assessment to look at a broader set of skills, including geometry, patterns and measurement. It found a large range of scores in math. The average score for Head Start children was 88.4, with the national average being 100. The ECLS found that the children who started Head Start with the lowest skills scored an average of 68.8 and the children with the highest skills scores on average 105.7 (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2006). Disadvantaged children are less likely to exhibit well-developed mathematics skills and knowledge than their more advantaged counterparts, both in preschool and continuing through the school years (Noble, Duch, Darvique, Grundleger, Rodriquez, Landers 2011). These families tend to focus on simpler topics, such as counting and shape recognition, rather than on more complex processes such as numerical or geometric reasoning. In two small evaluations with Head Start families, researchers found that children who participated in Family Mathematics Curriculum (FMC) with their parents had significantly higher scores in the areas of enumeration, numerical reasoning, and an overall math composite relative to children in a control group (Starkey Klein, 2000). This supports the idea that, with adequate support and materials, parents can have a significant impact on childrens mathematical skills, allowing for a more successful school experience (Noble, Duch, Darvique, Grundleger, Rodriquez, L anders 2011). Head Start encourages families to become involved in all aspects of their childs learning. Social and Emotional Development Head Start strives to promote young childrens development of social skills and emotional self-growth. Social and emotional development refers to childrens learning the skills needed to foster secure and healthy relationships with adults and other children, manage their own behavior and emotions, and develop a positive personal identity (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2010). Basically, this domain includes understand and following classroom rules, sharing with others, making friends, and listening, all skills needed to make children successful in school. Teaching social and emotional skills to young children who are at risk either because of biological and temperament factors or because of family disadvantage and stressful life factors can result in fewer aggressive responses, inclusion with pro-social peer groups, and more academic success (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2004, p. 98). Research in the area of early childhood education has shown that childrens social and emotional skills are important for children to be ready for school and are the basis for cognitive development and knowledge acquisition at very young ages (Center for the Study of Social Policy). Recent research released by Zero to Three, states that if à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"children do not achieve early social and emotional milestones, they will not do well in the early school years and are at higher risk for school problems and juvenile delinquency later in life (WestEd Center for Prevention and Early Intervention, 2006, p.10). Head Start children have shown growth in their social skills during the Head Start year (Unites States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2006). Early Head Start parents clearly linked their concerns about social and emotional development to their understanding that young children learn in social context and from social relationships (McAllister, Wilson, Green and Baldwin, 2005). Emotional regulation skills and social competence show exceptional growth during the preschool years. Teachers begin to see empathy emerge as children recognize a broader array of emotions. Children begin to understand that their actions can cause feelings in other people that are different from their own (Bierman, Nix, Greenberg, Blair, Domitrovich, 2008). A major developmental task of the first five years of life is the development of self-regulation, or controlling ones own emotions, learning to delay gratification, and building relationships. In fact, providing the experiences that allow children to take over and self-regulate in one aspect of their lives after another is a very general description of the job of parents, teachers, and protectors of children that extends throughout early childhood and into the adolescent years (Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development, 2000, p. 94). All children must learn to navigate through the transition of total dependence on others at birth, including learning to regulate their emotions, behaviors, and attention (NAEYC, 2009). In the preschool years, teachers can help children develop self-regulation by scaffolding high-level dramatic play, helping children to express their emotions, and engaging them in planning and decision making (NAEYC, 2009). The preschool period is seen as a critical period for the development of the skills needed for social competence (Tarullo, West, Aikens, Hulsey, December 2008). These skills are best accomplished during the preschool years because building positive social skills and healthy emotional relationships in young children is much easier than later trying to correct behavior and adjustment problems (Domain 6: Social and Emotional Development, website). Young children who know nothing but poverty are at greater risk of enduring emotional problems, particularly internalizing behavior problems (Tarullo, West, Aikens, Hulsey, 2008). Also, children with greater self-regulation in kindergarten are more skilled in reading and mathematics in later grades (NAEYC, 2009). Studies show that aggression declines as children gain the self-regulatory skills that allow them to inhibit reactive aggression in favor of socially appropriate alternatives. The acquisition of these social competencies (emotion regulation, pro-social skills, and aggression control) represent another important facet of school readiness, predicting kindergarten and elementary school engagement and academic success, as well as positive peer relation (Bierman, Nix, Greenberg, Blair, Domitrovich, 2008, p. 823). The FACES 1997 and 2000 cohorts showed gains in cooperative classroom behavior over the course of the program year. Children who started Head Start with lower social skills showed more gains than the children who entered with higher social skills (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). The mean score on the Total Behavior Problems scale for the FACES 2000 cohort was 5.6. This score shows that the typical Head Start child engaged in several forms of aggressive, hyperactive, or withdrawn behavior at least somewhat or sometimes, or one or two forms of undesirable behavior often (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). This score was close to the same as in the 1997-98 cohort. The significant declines in problem behavior by children with higher levels of problem behavior indicates that Head Start is having a redeeming influence on the children enrolled (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). The FACES 2003 showed that Head Start children showed significant fall to spring gains on a measure of social skills and cooperative classroom behavior, similar to gains observed in the FACES 1997 and 2000 cohorts (Unites States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2006). Many Head Start children show growth in their social skills during the school year, with other gains in cooperative classroom behavior and a decrease in withdrawn behavior as observed by classroom teachers (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2006). FACES 2006 showed that Head Start teachers reported that children enrolled as 3-year-olds showed more social skills, 18.4 versus 14.8, by the end of their second year enrolled in Head Start and fewer problem behaviors (5.4 versus 7.8) on average (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2006). At select time points throughout the school year, Head Start teachers rated children as having relatively strong soc ial skills and few problem behaviors. The January 2010 Head Start Impact Study found strong evidence of an impact of access to Head Start on parent-reported behavior at the end of the Head Start year. Parents reported less hyperactive behavior (effect size= -.21) and fewer total problem behaviors (effect size= -.21) for the Head Start group as compared to the control group. There is suggestive evidence of a positive impact on parent-reported social skills and approaches to learning (effect size=.11) at the end of the age 4 year (United States Department of Health and Human Services, January 2010). The same Head Start Impact Study also found that at the end of the kindergarten year, there is moderate evidence of an impact on parents reports of childrens hyperactive behavior. Parents reported less hyperactive behavior (effect size= -.21) for the Head Start group as compared to the control group. There is suggestive evidence of a favorable impact on childrens social skills and approaches to learning (effect size=0.14) as re ported by parents in this year (United States Department of Health and Human Services, January 2010). At the end of the 1st grade, there is moderate evidence of an impact on parent reports of closeness with their child (effect size=0.10), indicating more desirable or positive behavior for the Head Start group of children compared to those in the control group. There is also suggestive evidence of an improvement on parent-reported positive relationships with their child (effect size=0.10) in this year (United States Department of Health and Human Services, January 2010). School readiness and success in school require both the development of academic skills and the acquisition of positive social skills and approaches to learning (Blair, 2002). The January 2010 Head Start Impact Study showed there was limited evidence of an impact of Head Start on childrens social-emotional development with no impacts identified in the Head Start year or in kindergarten and only limited and conflicting impacts reported at the end of the 1st grade (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2010, p. 5-1). There is more evidence for the 3-year-olds social-emotional development. Parents reported strong evidence of reduced hyperactive behavior and reduced total problem behavior for children in the Head Start group during the school year. The reduction of hyperactive behavior continued into kindergarten for children in the Head Start group with a moderate report by parents. Parents also reported suggestive evidence of better social skills and positive approaches to learning for children in the Head Start group in both the age 4 year and in kindergarten. Finally, at the end of 1st grade, parents of Head Start group children reported evidence of a positive and closer relationship with their child than parents of children in the control group (United States Department of Health and Human Services, January 2010). Approaches to Learning The way a child looks at learning contributes to their success in school and often in their learning. It is not what a child learns at this age, it is how a child learns. Childrens ability to stay focused, interested, and engaged in activities supports a range of positive outcomes, including cognitive, language, and social and emotional development (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2010). The results of the Getting Ready for School study by Noble and colleagues, demonstrated that a targeted parent-focused program may be effective in supporting the development of school-readiness skills of disadvantaged preschool children. Assistance needs to be provided to Head Start programs to identifying and implement evidence-based interventions to help build the skills of parents so that they can help to support their childs school readiness (Noble, Duch, Darvique, Grundleger, Rodriquez, Landers, 2011). The approaches to learning domains encompasses observable beh aviors that indicate ways children become engaged in social interactions and learning experiences (United States Department of Health and Human Services, December 2010). Research shows that where children learn is just as important as how children learn. FACES 2000 found that Head Start classrooms were of good quality across a wide variety of indicators. In 2000-2001 there was an increased percentage of new teachers with advanced degrees that were more likely to be trained in Early Childhood Education and were members of a professional organization than in 1997-1998. The results showed that teachers with more education were more likely to have knowledge and positive attitudes about early childhood practices, which influence classroom quality (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2003). The FACES cohorts use the ECERS, or Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale to assess Head Start classrooms. The ECERS total score uses a rating scale of 1 to 7, with 1 indicating inadequate quality and 7 indicating excellent quality. FACES 1997 and 2000 cohorts found Head Start classrooms with relatively similar scores. In 1997, no classrooms were s cored inadequate and only 4 of the 518 classrooms studied were scored in the minimal range (3) (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). In 2000, a revised version of the ECERS found 5 of the 258 classrooms in the inadequate range and 15 of the 258 classrooms scored in the minimal range. FACES 2000 shows a small number of classrooms were rated lower in quality, but low-scoring classroom still only represented 20 of 358 classrooms overall (7.6 percent) (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). The other end of the scale shows that the number of classrooms rated as excellent increased from 18.7 percent in 1997 to 21.6 percent in 2000 (United States Department of Health and Human Services, May 2003). Both the FACES 2003 and 2009 cohorts showed that quality in Head Start continued to be good. The average ECERS-R score of Head Start classrooms is higher than those of other center-based preschool programs (United States Department of Healt h and Human Services, December 2006). Approximately 70 percent of Head Start children are enrolled in centers that have an ECERS-R score of at least a 5 (on the 7 point system) (

depletion of the ozone layer :: essays research papers fc

Our Radiant Planet: Depletion of the Ozone Layer Ozone is a relatively unstable form of molecular oxygen containing three oxygen atoms produced when upper-atmosphere oxygen molecules are split by ultra violet light. Stratospheric ozone is found in a broad band, extending generally from 15 to 35km above the earth. Although the ozone layer is surprisingly thin, it acts as a protective shield to the earth, as it filters out most of the harmful solar ultraviolet radiation (in particular UV-B) that would otherwise reach our planets surface. Humans have damaged the ozone layer by adding molecules containing chlorine and/or bromine that lead to ozone destruction. The largest group among these are chloroflurocarbons (CFC's). At ground level, these molecules are very stable and have many uses in industrial and domestic applications, such as in spray cans, industrial solvents, degreasing compounds, and cooling in fridges. However when released into the stratosphere, such molecules can be broken down by energetic light rays (UV-C radiation) in a reaction that liberates an atom of chlorine, which destroys ozone by oxidising with the Ozone molecules, forming Cl-O and Oxygen. One atom of chlorine can destroy 10,000 ozone molecules! Atoms containing bromine, nitrous oxide, and hydrogen oxide radicals are also primarily dangerous. As a result, the Ozone in the stratosphere has been reduced to such an extent that ozone holes are appearing around the globe, in particular one over Antarctica that in 1995 measured 8.2 million square m iles. This depletion has allowed more dangerous UV-B radiation to reach the earths surface. So what effects will ozone depletion have on us? Although, at present, the ozone layer blocks out most of the damaging UVB radiation received from the Sun, a small amount slips by, damaging out skin in the form of sunburns and suntans. UVB radiation is strongly absorbed in the skin and in the outer layers of the eye. Human skin has developed various defence mechanisms against the damaging effects of UV radiation. The skin adapts to increased UV exposure by thickening its outer layer and by developing pigmentation that serves to shade the more vulnerable and deeper residing dividing cells. Overly damaged cells will normally self destruct through a process called apoptosis, and if this fails, the immune system should get rid of any resulting aberrant cells. It is when these natural safeguards fail or are overcome by UVB that real trouble can ensue. The most depletion of the ozone layer :: essays research papers fc Our Radiant Planet: Depletion of the Ozone Layer Ozone is a relatively unstable form of molecular oxygen containing three oxygen atoms produced when upper-atmosphere oxygen molecules are split by ultra violet light. Stratospheric ozone is found in a broad band, extending generally from 15 to 35km above the earth. Although the ozone layer is surprisingly thin, it acts as a protective shield to the earth, as it filters out most of the harmful solar ultraviolet radiation (in particular UV-B) that would otherwise reach our planets surface. Humans have damaged the ozone layer by adding molecules containing chlorine and/or bromine that lead to ozone destruction. The largest group among these are chloroflurocarbons (CFC's). At ground level, these molecules are very stable and have many uses in industrial and domestic applications, such as in spray cans, industrial solvents, degreasing compounds, and cooling in fridges. However when released into the stratosphere, such molecules can be broken down by energetic light rays (UV-C radiation) in a reaction that liberates an atom of chlorine, which destroys ozone by oxidising with the Ozone molecules, forming Cl-O and Oxygen. One atom of chlorine can destroy 10,000 ozone molecules! Atoms containing bromine, nitrous oxide, and hydrogen oxide radicals are also primarily dangerous. As a result, the Ozone in the stratosphere has been reduced to such an extent that ozone holes are appearing around the globe, in particular one over Antarctica that in 1995 measured 8.2 million square m iles. This depletion has allowed more dangerous UV-B radiation to reach the earths surface. So what effects will ozone depletion have on us? Although, at present, the ozone layer blocks out most of the damaging UVB radiation received from the Sun, a small amount slips by, damaging out skin in the form of sunburns and suntans. UVB radiation is strongly absorbed in the skin and in the outer layers of the eye. Human skin has developed various defence mechanisms against the damaging effects of UV radiation. The skin adapts to increased UV exposure by thickening its outer layer and by developing pigmentation that serves to shade the more vulnerable and deeper residing dividing cells. Overly damaged cells will normally self destruct through a process called apoptosis, and if this fails, the immune system should get rid of any resulting aberrant cells. It is when these natural safeguards fail or are overcome by UVB that real trouble can ensue. The most